Caesar's Invasions of Britain: Celtic Perspective

"Of the inhabitants, those of Cantium (Kent), an entirely maritime district, are far the most advanced, and the type of civilization here prevalent differs little from that of Gaul. With most of the more inland tribes, the cultivation of corn disappears and a pastoral form of life succeeds, flesh and milk forming the principal diet, and skins of animals the dress. On the other hand, the Britons all agree in dying their bodies with woad, a substance that yields a bluish pigment, and in battle greatly increases the wildness of their look. Their hair is worn extremely long, and with the exception of the head and upper lip the entire body is shaved." (Julius Caesar's account of Britain)

Introduction

In researching Celtic history, I ran across an interesting book entitled, “History of the Kings of Britain,” that was written in Latin by Geoffrey of Monmouth in 1136 AD. This book traces the history of Britons through a sweep of nineteen hundred years stretching from the mythical Brutus, great-grandson of the Trojan Aeneas, to the last British King, Cadwallader. Geoffrey claims he translated his stories from 'a certain very ancient book written in the British language' that was given him by Walter the Archdeacon. Though his work has been sharply criticized for its historical inaccuracies, there are bits of truth that cannot be completely discounted.

Celtic Tribes in Britain

Of particular interest is Geoffrey’s account of Caesar’s invasions of Britain and his battles with Cassivellaunus that is told from his patriotic British viewpoint. What rings true in his story is the fragility of the British rulers' egos and their lust for power, a weakness that eventually plays into the hands of Claudius who invaded Britain in 43 AD. Previous posts which have summarized Caesar's Invasions of Britain from his accounts are located in the archives under the categories: Julius Caesar and Roman Invasion of Britain.

Below is a summary of Geoffrey’s version. One has to wonder if there are some truths from this version that put some of Caesar’s accounts into question.

Geoffrey’s Account of Caesar's Invasions of Britain

Julius Caesar was fascinated with Britain as he had been told the Britons were founded by Brutus, a descendant of Aeneas who fled from the ruined city of Troy to Italy. Although the Romans descended from the same ancient Trojan stock as the Britons, he underestimated them believing it would be a simple matter of forcing them to pay tribute and to swear their perpetual obedience to Rome. Thus, Caesar dispatched a message to the British King Cassivellaunus with demands that he pay tribute.

Reading the message, Cassivellaunus became indignant and sent Caesar a written message refusing to accept the terms of slavery. He further says, “It is friendship which you should have asked of us, not slavery. For our part we are more used to making allies than to enduring the yoke of bondage…we shall fight for our liberty and for our kingdom.”

The moment Caesar read this letter he prepared his fleet to set sail to Britain.

Roman Ship Image on Frieze

King Cassivellaunus—along with his brother Nennius, his nephew Androgeus (Duke of Trivovantum) and other nobles—marched down to meet Caesar after he landed and set-up his camp near the British Dover Cliffs. A fierce hand-to-hand battle ensued. In single combat, Caesar cut his sword into Nennius' shield that he could not wrench out. Nennius, taking Caesar’s sword, raged up and down the battlefield killing everyone he met. The Britons pressed forward as a united front cutting the Roman forces into pieces. That night, Caesar reformed his ranks, boarded his ships and sailed back to Gaul in defeat.

Dover Cliffs Kent Britain

Nennius succumbed to his wounds fifteen days after the battle and died. Cassivellaunus buried him with Caesar's sword called Yellow Death, for no man who was struck by it escaped alive.

Celtic Sword and Scabbard

Two years later, Caesar prepared to cross the sea a second time to avenge Cassivellaunus for the humiliating defeat he had suffered at his hands. As soon as the King heard of this, he garrisoned villages everywhere and planted stakes shod with iron and lead below the water-line in the bed of the River Thames, up which Caesar would have to sail to attack Trivovantum.

Ancient Celtic Village on Hill Top

Cassivellaunus and every man of military age waited for Caesar to cruise up the Thames where his ships were ripped apart by the stakes. As a result, thousands of Romans drowned, but several survivors clambered with Caesar onto dry land. The King ordered his warriors to charge the remaining Romans. The Britons, outnumbering the Romans three to one, were victorious over their weakened enemy. Again, Caesar escaped to his remaining undamaged ships and sailed back to Gaul.

Celtic Horned Helmet Found at River Thames Date 150-50BC

Elated from his overwhelming victory, Cassivellaunus invited all his noblemen to a glorious feast where cows, sheep, fowl, and wild beasts in the hundreds were sacrificed as offerings to the gods. At the sporting events that night, the King’s nephew was beheaded by the nephew of Duke Androgeus in a dispute. Enraged, Cassivellaunus demanded that the Duke present his nephew in court for sentence. Androgeus refused.

Celtic Round House for Assembly

Enraged by the Duke's refusal, Cassivellaunus ravaged his lands. In desperation, Androgeus dispatched a message to Caesar with a plea to help him restore his position. Only after the Duke sent his son, together with thirty young nobles as hostages, did Caesar depart for Britain a third time.

Model of Ancient Roman Ship

This time, Cassivellaunus was sacking Trinovantum when Caesar landed. Upon hearing the news of Caesar’s return, the King abandoned his siege and rushed to meet his Roman adversary. When the two sides met, they hurled deadly weapons at each other and exchanged mortal blows with their swords. In an unexpected move, Androgeus and his forces attacked the rear of the King’s battle line, forcing his warriors to give ground from the assaults on both sides.

Roman Soldiers in Legion

The King took flight from the battlefield and retreated to a hill top. Caesar besieged the hill, but he still could not defeat the King. Even now, when driven off the battle-field, Cassivellaunus and his battered forces continued resisting a man whom the whole world could not withstand. Caesar resorted to cutting off all means for the King's retreat and to starving them.

Ramparts and Ditches Maiden Castle Hill-Fort

After two days without food, Cassivellaunus sent a message asking Androgeus to make peace for him with Caesar. When the envoys delivered the message to Androgeus, he said, "The leader who is as fierce as a lion in peace-time but as gentle as a lamb in time of war is not really worth much." Nonetheless, he was moved by the King’s pleas and went to Caesar to plead mercy for the King. He told Caesar, "All that I promised you is this, that I would help you humble Cassivellaunus and conquer Britain. He is beaten, and, with my help, Britain is in your hands. Yet I cannot allow you to kill him while I myself remain alive."

Celtic Carnyx Serpent War Horn

Ultimately, Caesar made peace with Cassivellaunus who, in turn, promised yearly tribute to Rome. The tale ends well as Caesar and Cassivellaunus become great friends and give each other gifts. Androgeus travels to Rome as a guest of Caesar.

Concluding Remarks

Certainly the above tale of Caesar's Invasions of Britain differs from the Roman General's account, but there are some similarities. Caesar wrote that, after Cassivellaunus brought down the King of the Trinovantes, his son Mandubracius fled to Gaul. He asked for Caesar's help in regaining the Trinovantes kingdom. On Caesar’s second invasion of Britain in 54 BC, Cassivellaunus fiercely resisted the Romans, but he eventually surrendered after they devastated his territories and other rival kings sought peace with his enemy.

Celtic Greaves

Though Caesar was proclaimed a hero by the Roman Senate for his accomplishments in Britain, it can be argued his expeditions were not successful as he did not complete the conquest. The scenario of British rulers fleeing to Rome and asking for help to regain their sovereignty from rival rulers repeats time and time again up to the final conquest by Emperor Claudius in 43 AD. At that time, the King of the Atrebates, Verica, asked for help from Claudius in regaining his territory from Caratacus, a chieftain from the Catuvellauni tribe.

Richborough Roman Fort, Site of Roman Invasion Under Claudius

To be continued

The next posts will provide an overview of rival dynastic kings that came to power in Britain between the time period of Caesar’s invasion of Britain in 54 BC up to Claudius’ conquest in 43 AD.

References:

Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain, translated with an introduction by Lewis Thorpe; Penguin Books, New York; first published 1966.

Julius Caesar, The Conquest of Gaul, translated by Rev. F. P. Long and introduction by Cheryl Walker; Barnes  & Noble, Inc.,  New York; 2005.

Apollo's Raven

Julius Caesar Second Invasion Britain

THE STANDARD PATH of the mythological adventure of the hero is represented in the rites of passage: separation, initiation, and return—Joseph Campbell

Introduction

The unpublished epic historical fantasy [First Novel: APOLLO’S RAVEN] is envisioned to be a series set in Celtic Britain, Gaul (modern day France) and Ancient Rome prior to the invasion of Claudius in 43 AD. The first novel begins in 24 AD Celtic Britain (modern day Ken) when a Celtic warrior princess begins a perilous odyssey to help save her kingdom from rival rulers.

Historical and archaeological evidence supports the theory that Julius Caesar’s invasion in 55-54 BC helped establish Celtic dynasties in southeast Britain loyal to Rome. Political unrest of rival tribal rulers in 24 AD provides the backdrop to APOLLO'S RAVEN where the Celtic heroine first meets the great-grandson of Mark Antony.

Coastal White Cliffs Near Dover

Political Support

Although Caesar’s first expedition to Britain in 55 BC had limited success, the Romans were wildly enthusiastic he had conquered the ocean by invading the island. It would be similar to the excitement of landing on the moon in modern times. The Roman Senate voted twenty days of thanksgiving to celebrate his accomplishment. The political support paved the way for his second campaign in Britain the following year in 54 BC.

Based on his experience from the first expedition, Caesar’s second campaign launched in early July 54 BC was on a grander scale. It is not clear from Caesar's accounts whether the purpose of the second invasion was to conquer Britain, punish hostile tribes, or open the British Isles to more lucrative Roman trade. The unfolding events in his accounts suggest the primary objective was to establish pro-Roman dynasties that would subsequently be rewarded with lucrative trade for their loyalty.

Statue of Julius Caesar

Lessons Learned From First Invasion

Caesar documented what he learned from the first invasion that helped him effectively prepare for the second campaign. The primary lesson was the ocean, with its massive tides, racing currents, and variable winds, was a more formidable opponent that the Britons. These forces of nature wreaked havoc on Roman logistics. Further, he gained invaluable insight on the British fighting tactics, diverse populations, political complexities, and powerful rulers that helped him in the second invasion.

Chariot Battle Tactics

In the first expedition, Julius Caesar faced stiff resistance from fierce warriors that included approximately 4,000 chariot teams. His Roman Legion had not previously faced chariot fighting tactics. Although chariot racing was a popular past time in Rome, it was not used in Roman warfare.

Chariot Race Mosaic

Caesar describes chariot battle tactics as follows:

"First, they drive in all directions hurling spears. Generally they succeed in throwing the ranks of their opponents into confusion just with the terror of the galloping horses and the din of the wheels. They make their way through the squadrons of their own cavalry, then jump down from their chariots and fight on foot. Meanwhile, the chariot drivers withdraw a little way from the fighting and position the chariots in such a way that if their masters are hard pressed by the enemy’s number, they have an easy means of retreat to their own lines. Thus, when they fight they have the mobility of cavalry and the staying power of infantry. And with daily training and practice they have become so efficient that even on steep slopes they can control their horses at full gallop, check and turn them in a moment, run along the pole, stand on the yoke, and get back into the chariot with incredible speed."

Celtic Horned Helmet Found at River Thames Date 150-50BC

Nonetheless, Caesar was able to overcome these obstacles with an established, well-disciplined army  against the more chaotic battle assaults by the various tribal leaders and their armies.

Professional Roman Soldiers in Legion

Diverse Tribal Regions

Caesar describes the population along the southeast coast of Britain to be densely populated by Belgic immigrants of Germanic ancestry, who had crossed the channel from Gaul to plunder and eventually settle. The inhabitants of Cantium (modern day Kent), an entirely maritime district, were far more advanced than the inland tribes consisting of the original pastoral inhabitants who had their own traditions. Caesar's first attack in Kent is not surprising given the long period of social relations between the peoples in Gaul and Britain. British war-leaders who had served in all Gallic wars against Romans were rewarded with gold coinage minted in Belgic Gaul.

Gallo-Belgic Gold Coin

Coinage appeared as early as 125 BC in Britain. Early coins adopted the Greek design showed the head of Apollo and the horses and chariot on the reverse side. This design was eventually abstracted more in line with Celtic art. Low value bronze coins were minted in the Kent region to support the early first century development of their market economy. The bronze coins used by the Cantiaci tribe in this region were prototypes of those produced in Massilia (Marseille) that featured a charging bull. For the first time the British were exposed to writing in the form of Latin script. In the 70s and 60s BC other tribes in Britain followed the example of the Cantiaci and adopted coinage: the Atrebates in Hampshire/Berkshire and the Catuvellauni/Trivovantes north of the Thames.

There were major centers of population, the oppida (town), where traders assembled. Many of these tribal centers were built from fortified hill-forts. Structures in southeast Britain were set close together and included thatch-roof, round houses. Flocks of sheep and herds of cattle were plentiful. Interestingly, the Britons had a taboo against eating hares, fowls, and geese, which they kept as pets.

Ancient Celtic Village of Roundhouses

Powerful Tribes and Rulers

No doubt the preparation for the second invasion included political negotiations with powerful British leaders, one of whom was Mandubracius. He was a prince of the Trivovantes, a powerful tribe occupying the Essex region. Mandubracius fled to Gaul to put himself under Caesar’s protection after his father was killed in a conflict with his neighbor Cassivellaunus, the king of the Catuvellauni. According to Caesar, the Catuvellauni had been in continual state of war with other tribes in the area.

Celtic Shield La Tène Style

Mandubracius was an invaluable source of intelligence about the complexities of the local politics and the primary centers of power in eastern Britain. He also provided information about the terrain through which Caesar would fight. Armed with this information, Caesar’s strategy was clear. He  would move with lightning speed through Kent to the Thames where he would meet Cassivellaunus. Caesar also planned to use Mandubracius as a political pawn to negotiate the prince's reinstatement as ruler of the Trivovantes.

Redesign of Ships to Counter Tidal Changes

Due to the frequent tidal changes that Caesar encountered in his first expedition, he ordered his generals to construct smaller transports with shallower drafts for easier loading and beaching. The vessel's beam was built wider to carry heavy cargoes, including large numbers of horses and mules. As a result of the redesign, the ships were difficult to maneuver and thus were equally fitted for rowing and sailing.

Roman Warship Model

Landing Without Opposition

At sunset on July 6th, Caesar embarked from Portis Itius (modern day Wissant France) to Britain with a fleet of 800 ships that transported five legions (25,000 soldiers) and 2,000 cavalry. The tide turned the following morning and took the ships with it. As a result, the soldiers had to row the ungainly vessels without stop to reach the Kent coast (near Deal) by mid-day. Unlike the first expedition, there were no signs of enemy to oppose the landing. Caesar learned later the tribal forces had been dismayed to see the vast flotilla in the English Channel and thus decided to seek a stronger position inland to fight.

Without any opposition, Caesar’s ships anchored and a site was chosen for camp.

Landing Site for Julius Caesar's Flotilla (Deal UK)

Initial Conflict

With typical audacity, Caesar immediately marched his legions 12 miles inland in early morning darkness the next day to the River Stour near Canterbury. Shocked at the sudden appearance of the Roman army, Britons fell back to a formidable position in the woods which Caesar described as being fortified by immense natural and artificial strength. The hill-fort was strongly guarded by felled trees that were packed together. Possibly this site was initially built for tribal wars. The Roman soldiers locked their shields above their heads to form a testudo (tortoise) to protect themselves from missiles while they hacked their way into the fortress and drove the British forces into the woods. Further pursuit was forbidden by Caesar as the countryside was unfamiliar. He needed sufficient time to entrench his camp.

Coastal White Cliffs Britain

Storm's Wrath

The following morning, the Roman pursuit of the British fugitives began in earnest. Again Caesar underestimated the powerful forces of the English Channel. A terrible storm along the coast tore the ships from their moorings and drove them ashore. When Caesar received the bad news about the shipwrecks, he abandoned his speedy advance which would have desolated the Britons He returned his army to repair the damages to his vessels.

Roman Ship Image on Frieze

(To be continued)

References:

1. Barry Cunliffe, Britain Begins; Reprinted 2013; Oxford University Press, United Kingdom
2. Julius Caesar, translated by F. P. Long, 2005. The Conquest of Gaul; United States: Barnes  & Noble, Inc.
3. Graham Webster, The Roman Invasion of Britain; Reprinted 1999 by Routledge, New York.
4. Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces; 3rd Edition Reprinted by New World Library, Novato, CA.

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Celtic Tarot Cards Meaning from Nature

Introduction D.N. Frost It is with great pleasure that I introduce D.N. Frost, an exciting fantasy author with a passion for Celtic mythology and traditions. She has graciously provided a guest post about the rich symbolism of nature used in Tarot cards. Welcome D. N. Frost! I encourage everyone to learn more about her and the […]

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Caesar Second Invasion Britain

‘Cities and Thrones and Powers, Stand in Time’s eye, Almost as long as flowers, Which daily die. But, as new buds put forth To glad new men, Out of the spent and considered Earth The Cities rise again’ –Rudyard Kipling Introduction This is Part 3 in the series of posts that support Julius Caesar’s invasions […]

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Caesar's First Invasion Celtic Britain

Celtic Tradition of Raven: 
I have fled in the shape of a raven of prophetic speech (Taliesin). The raven offers initiation—the destruction of one thing to give birth to another. For deeper understanding, the heroine must journey through darkness to emerge into morning's new light. 

INTRODUCTION

The epic historical fantasy, APOLLO’S RAVEN, is the first unpublished novel in a series, Celtic Spirit Warrior Chronicles, set in Ancient Britain, Gaul (modern day France), and Rome prior to the invasion of Claudius in 43 AD. Although Julius Caesar's invasion of Britain occurred approximately 90 years earlier in 55 and 54 BC, there is historical and archaeological evidence that suggests these invasions were not momentary diversions from Caesar’s conquest of Gaul. It was a plan to establish powerful tribal dynasties in southeast Britain that were loyal to Rome.

Statue of Julius Caesar

The next series of posts will summarize events that precipitated the final Roman invasion of Britain in 43 AD. The article below highlights Julius Caesar’s first invasion of Britain in 55 BC. Following his invasions, pro- and anti-Roman factions arose in Britain that provides the backdrop for APOLLO’S RAVEN, an epic tale about the odyssey of a Celtic warrior princess who meets the great-grandson of Mark Anthony.

Caesar's Invasion Celtic Britain

Planning

In 55 AD, Caesar was anxious to invade Britain because powerful British chieftains were aiding Celtic tribal leaders in Gaul with their war against Rome. Most of Caesar's information about the geography and culture of Britain was limited and derived from traders. Thus, he wanted to learn more about the island's size, the names of tribal rulers, their military state and organization, and the harbors suitable for landing larger vessels. He dispatched Commius, the King of the Atrebates Tribe in Gaul, to persuade the British chieftains to negotiate terms upon his landing in Britain.

White Dover Cliffs Britain

As Caesar prepared his fleet for the British excursion from Gaul (modern day Boulogne France), news of his aggressive intentions reached the tribal rulers in southeast Britain. In response, they sent envoys to Caesar promising hostages and tribute. Encouraged by their willingness to negotiate, Caesar allowed the envoys to return home. Unbeknownst to him, one of the chieftains took Commius as prisoner.

Roman Ship Image on Frieze

Roman Landing

At midnight in late summer, eighty ships that transported two legions (about 10,000 soldiers) sailed for Britain. Caesar left instructions for 18 ships to transport the cavalry further north on the coastline. When his warships first reached the British shore early the next morning, the white hills (modern day Dover Cliffs) were lined with warriors armed with spears. With only a thin beach on which Caesar’s troops could disembark, the Celtic fighters held the vantage of being able to hurl their spears down on them. Since the landing was impossible, Caesar directed his fleet seven miles north to an open, flat expanse of shingle beach. British horsemen and charioteers followed Caesar’s ships on the hilltops as they sailed up the coastline.

Coastal White Cliffs Near Dover

Battle on the Beach

After landing at the new location, Caesar's forces faced formidable Celtic warriors who were waiting on the beach ready to fight. Roman soldiers were forced to jump overboard into the channel water without knowing how deep the bottom was. Laden with heavy equipment, the Romans struggled to maintain their footing in the surf as they fought Celtic horsemen who seized very opportunity to dash their mounts at isolated groups struggling to get ashore.

Celtic Shield La Tène Style

The Romans, finding it impossible to keep formation, at first panicked in battle. Caesar ordered his warships to catapult hot fire of sling-stones, arrows, and artillery at the British warriors to drive them from their point of vantage. Caesar recounts an eagle-bearer from the Tenth Legion emboldened his comrades by leaping into the water and shouting, “I, at any rate, shall not be found wanting in my duty to my country and general.”

Once the Romans were firmly on land, their troops charged and routed the Britons. After the British were defeated near the coastline, the tribal rulers dispatched envoys to discuss terms of surrender to Caesar. Commius, the Atrebates King who Caesar had earlier sent to Britain, was released. The envoys promised to meet Caesar’s every need and allowed him to use the natives at his disposal.

Shingle Beach Near Deal UK,
Location of Caesar's Landing in Britain

Tidal Phenomenon 

On the fourth day of the Roman expedition, the ships carrying the Roman cavalry were driven back by a sudden storm. On the same night, the full moon brought a tidal phenomenon that Caesar had not been prepared to face. Waves surged up the beach and destroyed or damaged most of his ships. Some of the soldiers repaired the damaged ships using the timber and copper from the worst wrecks while others foraged for corn in the surrounding fields. As a consequence of this calamity, there was a marked change in the attitude of the Celtic chieftains who secretly met and pledged to take up arms again and starve out their invaders. They covertly called upon their followers to fight.

Roman Warship Model

Caesar was unaware of this treachery as there were no signs of hostile movements by local inhabitants who continued to farm and visit the Roman encampment. That all changed when outposts outside the main camp reported there was a cloud of dust in an area that had been taken by the Romans. Now suspecting a new plot had broken among the natives, Caesar ordered a battalion to march a considerable distance to where warriors in chariots had ambushed some of his soldiers foraging for food.

Coastal White Cliffs Britain

Chariot-fighting

In the subsequent battle, Roman infantrymen were thrown into confusion by the British use of chariot-fighting, a fighting tactic which they had never encountered in warfare. The charioteers, galloping wildly down the whole field of battle, terrified the Roman soldiers by charging their horses into the melee of fighting. A fighter would leap out of the chariot and fight on foot. Meanwhile, the driver would take position a short distance from battle to retreat if they became overpowered. Even on the most treacherous terrain, the charioteers had perfect control over their horses. Hence, the Britons combined the skill of an infantryman with the mobility of the cavalry. It was only through military discipline that the Romans were able to overcome their opponents. After the victorious battle, Caesar returned to base camp with his remaining troops.

Celtic Horned Helmet
Found at River Thames Date 150-50BC

Roman Victory

News of Caesar’s weakened position and an appeal to expel the invaders from their entrenchments spread throughout the countryside. Another wave of enemy forces advanced on foot and horseback toward the Roman encampment. Caesar charged his two legions against these tribal forces which were ultimately not able to withstand the Roman attack. In retaliation for the British treachery, several of the native farms were burned to ashes.

Ancient Celtic Village
Roundhouses

Finally, the tribal chieftains agreed to surrender under the terms that the number of hostages previously imposed would double. With the equinox close on hand, Caesar feared his repaired ships might not withstand the ocean’s storms and thus he sailed back to the Continent with only a few of the promised hostages. When he ordered the remaining hostages be sent to Gaul, the British rulers refused to send them.

During the following winter months, Caesar ordered his generals to build a fleet of newly designed ships that could better handle the seas in the British Channel for his second invasion.

(To be Continued)

References:

Julius Caesar, translated by F. P. Long, 2005. The Conquest of Gaul; United States: Barnes & Noble, Inc.

John Manley, 2002. AD 43—The Roman Invasion of Britain. Charlston, SC: Tempus Publishing Inc.

Graham Webster, The Roman Invasion of Britain; Reprinted 1999 by Routledge, New York.