Julius Caesar Second Invasion Britain

THE STANDARD PATH of the mythological adventure of the hero is represented in the rites of passage: separation, initiation, and return—Joseph Campbell

Introduction

The unpublished epic historical fantasy [First Novel: APOLLO’S RAVEN] is envisioned to be a series set in Celtic Britain, Gaul (modern day France) and Ancient Rome prior to the invasion of Claudius in 43 AD. The first novel begins in 24 AD Celtic Britain (modern day Ken) when a Celtic warrior princess begins a perilous odyssey to help save her kingdom from rival rulers.

Historical and archaeological evidence supports the theory that Julius Caesar’s invasion in 55-54 BC helped establish Celtic dynasties in southeast Britain loyal to Rome. Political unrest of rival tribal rulers in 24 AD provides the backdrop to APOLLO'S RAVEN where the Celtic heroine first meets the great-grandson of Mark Antony.

Coastal White Cliffs Near Dover

Political Support

Although Caesar’s first expedition to Britain in 55 BC had limited success, the Romans were wildly enthusiastic he had conquered the ocean by invading the island. It would be similar to the excitement of landing on the moon in modern times. The Roman Senate voted twenty days of thanksgiving to celebrate his accomplishment. The political support paved the way for his second campaign in Britain the following year in 54 BC.

Based on his experience from the first expedition, Caesar’s second campaign launched in early July 54 BC was on a grander scale. It is not clear from Caesar's accounts whether the purpose of the second invasion was to conquer Britain, punish hostile tribes, or open the British Isles to more lucrative Roman trade. The unfolding events in his accounts suggest the primary objective was to establish pro-Roman dynasties that would subsequently be rewarded with lucrative trade for their loyalty.

Statue of Julius Caesar

Lessons Learned From First Invasion

Caesar documented what he learned from the first invasion that helped him effectively prepare for the second campaign. The primary lesson was the ocean, with its massive tides, racing currents, and variable winds, was a more formidable opponent that the Britons. These forces of nature wreaked havoc on Roman logistics. Further, he gained invaluable insight on the British fighting tactics, diverse populations, political complexities, and powerful rulers that helped him in the second invasion.

Chariot Battle Tactics

In the first expedition, Julius Caesar faced stiff resistance from fierce warriors that included approximately 4,000 chariot teams. His Roman Legion had not previously faced chariot fighting tactics. Although chariot racing was a popular past time in Rome, it was not used in Roman warfare.

Chariot Race Mosaic

Caesar describes chariot battle tactics as follows:

"First, they drive in all directions hurling spears. Generally they succeed in throwing the ranks of their opponents into confusion just with the terror of the galloping horses and the din of the wheels. They make their way through the squadrons of their own cavalry, then jump down from their chariots and fight on foot. Meanwhile, the chariot drivers withdraw a little way from the fighting and position the chariots in such a way that if their masters are hard pressed by the enemy’s number, they have an easy means of retreat to their own lines. Thus, when they fight they have the mobility of cavalry and the staying power of infantry. And with daily training and practice they have become so efficient that even on steep slopes they can control their horses at full gallop, check and turn them in a moment, run along the pole, stand on the yoke, and get back into the chariot with incredible speed."

Celtic Horned Helmet Found at River Thames Date 150-50BC

Nonetheless, Caesar was able to overcome these obstacles with an established, well-disciplined army  against the more chaotic battle assaults by the various tribal leaders and their armies.

Professional Roman Soldiers in Legion

Diverse Tribal Regions

Caesar describes the population along the southeast coast of Britain to be densely populated by Belgic immigrants of Germanic ancestry, who had crossed the channel from Gaul to plunder and eventually settle. The inhabitants of Cantium (modern day Kent), an entirely maritime district, were far more advanced than the inland tribes consisting of the original pastoral inhabitants who had their own traditions. Caesar's first attack in Kent is not surprising given the long period of social relations between the peoples in Gaul and Britain. British war-leaders who had served in all Gallic wars against Romans were rewarded with gold coinage minted in Belgic Gaul.

Gallo-Belgic Gold Coin

Coinage appeared as early as 125 BC in Britain. Early coins adopted the Greek design showed the head of Apollo and the horses and chariot on the reverse side. This design was eventually abstracted more in line with Celtic art. Low value bronze coins were minted in the Kent region to support the early first century development of their market economy. The bronze coins used by the Cantiaci tribe in this region were prototypes of those produced in Massilia (Marseille) that featured a charging bull. For the first time the British were exposed to writing in the form of Latin script. In the 70s and 60s BC other tribes in Britain followed the example of the Cantiaci and adopted coinage: the Atrebates in Hampshire/Berkshire and the Catuvellauni/Trivovantes north of the Thames.

There were major centers of population, the oppida (town), where traders assembled. Many of these tribal centers were built from fortified hill-forts. Structures in southeast Britain were set close together and included thatch-roof, round houses. Flocks of sheep and herds of cattle were plentiful. Interestingly, the Britons had a taboo against eating hares, fowls, and geese, which they kept as pets.

Ancient Celtic Village of Roundhouses

Powerful Tribes and Rulers

No doubt the preparation for the second invasion included political negotiations with powerful British leaders, one of whom was Mandubracius. He was a prince of the Trivovantes, a powerful tribe occupying the Essex region. Mandubracius fled to Gaul to put himself under Caesar’s protection after his father was killed in a conflict with his neighbor Cassivellaunus, the king of the Catuvellauni. According to Caesar, the Catuvellauni had been in continual state of war with other tribes in the area.

Celtic Shield La Tène Style

Mandubracius was an invaluable source of intelligence about the complexities of the local politics and the primary centers of power in eastern Britain. He also provided information about the terrain through which Caesar would fight. Armed with this information, Caesar’s strategy was clear. He  would move with lightning speed through Kent to the Thames where he would meet Cassivellaunus. Caesar also planned to use Mandubracius as a political pawn to negotiate the prince's reinstatement as ruler of the Trivovantes.

Redesign of Ships to Counter Tidal Changes

Due to the frequent tidal changes that Caesar encountered in his first expedition, he ordered his generals to construct smaller transports with shallower drafts for easier loading and beaching. The vessel's beam was built wider to carry heavy cargoes, including large numbers of horses and mules. As a result of the redesign, the ships were difficult to maneuver and thus were equally fitted for rowing and sailing.

Roman Warship Model

Landing Without Opposition

At sunset on July 6th, Caesar embarked from Portis Itius (modern day Wissant France) to Britain with a fleet of 800 ships that transported five legions (25,000 soldiers) and 2,000 cavalry. The tide turned the following morning and took the ships with it. As a result, the soldiers had to row the ungainly vessels without stop to reach the Kent coast (near Deal) by mid-day. Unlike the first expedition, there were no signs of enemy to oppose the landing. Caesar learned later the tribal forces had been dismayed to see the vast flotilla in the English Channel and thus decided to seek a stronger position inland to fight.

Without any opposition, Caesar’s ships anchored and a site was chosen for camp.

Landing Site for Julius Caesar's Flotilla (Deal UK)

Initial Conflict

With typical audacity, Caesar immediately marched his legions 12 miles inland in early morning darkness the next day to the River Stour near Canterbury. Shocked at the sudden appearance of the Roman army, Britons fell back to a formidable position in the woods which Caesar described as being fortified by immense natural and artificial strength. The hill-fort was strongly guarded by felled trees that were packed together. Possibly this site was initially built for tribal wars. The Roman soldiers locked their shields above their heads to form a testudo (tortoise) to protect themselves from missiles while they hacked their way into the fortress and drove the British forces into the woods. Further pursuit was forbidden by Caesar as the countryside was unfamiliar. He needed sufficient time to entrench his camp.

Coastal White Cliffs Britain

Storm's Wrath

The following morning, the Roman pursuit of the British fugitives began in earnest. Again Caesar underestimated the powerful forces of the English Channel. A terrible storm along the coast tore the ships from their moorings and drove them ashore. When Caesar received the bad news about the shipwrecks, he abandoned his speedy advance which would have desolated the Britons He returned his army to repair the damages to his vessels.

Roman Ship Image on Frieze

(To be continued)

References:

1. Barry Cunliffe, Britain Begins; Reprinted 2013; Oxford University Press, United Kingdom
2. Julius Caesar, translated by F. P. Long, 2005. The Conquest of Gaul; United States: Barnes  & Noble, Inc.
3. Graham Webster, The Roman Invasion of Britain; Reprinted 1999 by Routledge, New York.
4. Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces; 3rd Edition Reprinted by New World Library, Novato, CA.

http://www.linneatanner.com/blog/

Celtic Tarot Cards Meaning from Nature

Introduction D.N. Frost It is with great pleasure that I introduce D.N. Frost, an exciting fantasy author with a passion for Celtic mythology and traditions. She has graciously provided a guest post about the rich symbolism of nature used in Tarot cards. Welcome D. N. Frost! I encourage everyone to learn more about her and the […]

The post Celtic Tarot Cards Meaning from Nature appeared first on LinneaTanner.com - Apollo's Raven.

Caesar Second Invasion Britain

‘Cities and Thrones and Powers, Stand in Time’s eye, Almost as long as flowers, Which daily die. But, as new buds put forth To glad new men, Out of the spent and considered Earth The Cities rise again’ –Rudyard Kipling Introduction This is Part 3 in the series of posts that support Julius Caesar’s invasions […]

The post Caesar Second Invasion Britain appeared first on LinneaTanner.com - Apollo's Raven.

Caesar's First Invasion Celtic Britain

Celtic Tradition of Raven: 
I have fled in the shape of a raven of prophetic speech (Taliesin). The raven offers initiation—the destruction of one thing to give birth to another. For deeper understanding, the heroine must journey through darkness to emerge into morning's new light. 

INTRODUCTION

The epic historical fantasy, APOLLO’S RAVEN, is the first unpublished novel in a series, Celtic Spirit Warrior Chronicles, set in Ancient Britain, Gaul (modern day France), and Rome prior to the invasion of Claudius in 43 AD. Although Julius Caesar's invasion of Britain occurred approximately 90 years earlier in 55 and 54 BC, there is historical and archaeological evidence that suggests these invasions were not momentary diversions from Caesar’s conquest of Gaul. It was a plan to establish powerful tribal dynasties in southeast Britain that were loyal to Rome.

Statue of Julius Caesar

The next series of posts will summarize events that precipitated the final Roman invasion of Britain in 43 AD. The article below highlights Julius Caesar’s first invasion of Britain in 55 BC. Following his invasions, pro- and anti-Roman factions arose in Britain that provides the backdrop for APOLLO’S RAVEN, an epic tale about the odyssey of a Celtic warrior princess who meets the great-grandson of Mark Anthony.

Caesar's Invasion Celtic Britain

Planning

In 55 AD, Caesar was anxious to invade Britain because powerful British chieftains were aiding Celtic tribal leaders in Gaul with their war against Rome. Most of Caesar's information about the geography and culture of Britain was limited and derived from traders. Thus, he wanted to learn more about the island's size, the names of tribal rulers, their military state and organization, and the harbors suitable for landing larger vessels. He dispatched Commius, the King of the Atrebates Tribe in Gaul, to persuade the British chieftains to negotiate terms upon his landing in Britain.

White Dover Cliffs Britain

As Caesar prepared his fleet for the British excursion from Gaul (modern day Boulogne France), news of his aggressive intentions reached the tribal rulers in southeast Britain. In response, they sent envoys to Caesar promising hostages and tribute. Encouraged by their willingness to negotiate, Caesar allowed the envoys to return home. Unbeknownst to him, one of the chieftains took Commius as prisoner.

Roman Ship Image on Frieze

Roman Landing

At midnight in late summer, eighty ships that transported two legions (about 10,000 soldiers) sailed for Britain. Caesar left instructions for 18 ships to transport the cavalry further north on the coastline. When his warships first reached the British shore early the next morning, the white hills (modern day Dover Cliffs) were lined with warriors armed with spears. With only a thin beach on which Caesar’s troops could disembark, the Celtic fighters held the vantage of being able to hurl their spears down on them. Since the landing was impossible, Caesar directed his fleet seven miles north to an open, flat expanse of shingle beach. British horsemen and charioteers followed Caesar’s ships on the hilltops as they sailed up the coastline.

Coastal White Cliffs Near Dover

Battle on the Beach

After landing at the new location, Caesar's forces faced formidable Celtic warriors who were waiting on the beach ready to fight. Roman soldiers were forced to jump overboard into the channel water without knowing how deep the bottom was. Laden with heavy equipment, the Romans struggled to maintain their footing in the surf as they fought Celtic horsemen who seized very opportunity to dash their mounts at isolated groups struggling to get ashore.

Celtic Shield La Tène Style

The Romans, finding it impossible to keep formation, at first panicked in battle. Caesar ordered his warships to catapult hot fire of sling-stones, arrows, and artillery at the British warriors to drive them from their point of vantage. Caesar recounts an eagle-bearer from the Tenth Legion emboldened his comrades by leaping into the water and shouting, “I, at any rate, shall not be found wanting in my duty to my country and general.”

Once the Romans were firmly on land, their troops charged and routed the Britons. After the British were defeated near the coastline, the tribal rulers dispatched envoys to discuss terms of surrender to Caesar. Commius, the Atrebates King who Caesar had earlier sent to Britain, was released. The envoys promised to meet Caesar’s every need and allowed him to use the natives at his disposal.

Shingle Beach Near Deal UK,
Location of Caesar's Landing in Britain

Tidal Phenomenon 

On the fourth day of the Roman expedition, the ships carrying the Roman cavalry were driven back by a sudden storm. On the same night, the full moon brought a tidal phenomenon that Caesar had not been prepared to face. Waves surged up the beach and destroyed or damaged most of his ships. Some of the soldiers repaired the damaged ships using the timber and copper from the worst wrecks while others foraged for corn in the surrounding fields. As a consequence of this calamity, there was a marked change in the attitude of the Celtic chieftains who secretly met and pledged to take up arms again and starve out their invaders. They covertly called upon their followers to fight.

Roman Warship Model

Caesar was unaware of this treachery as there were no signs of hostile movements by local inhabitants who continued to farm and visit the Roman encampment. That all changed when outposts outside the main camp reported there was a cloud of dust in an area that had been taken by the Romans. Now suspecting a new plot had broken among the natives, Caesar ordered a battalion to march a considerable distance to where warriors in chariots had ambushed some of his soldiers foraging for food.

Coastal White Cliffs Britain

Chariot-fighting

In the subsequent battle, Roman infantrymen were thrown into confusion by the British use of chariot-fighting, a fighting tactic which they had never encountered in warfare. The charioteers, galloping wildly down the whole field of battle, terrified the Roman soldiers by charging their horses into the melee of fighting. A fighter would leap out of the chariot and fight on foot. Meanwhile, the driver would take position a short distance from battle to retreat if they became overpowered. Even on the most treacherous terrain, the charioteers had perfect control over their horses. Hence, the Britons combined the skill of an infantryman with the mobility of the cavalry. It was only through military discipline that the Romans were able to overcome their opponents. After the victorious battle, Caesar returned to base camp with his remaining troops.

Celtic Horned Helmet
Found at River Thames Date 150-50BC

Roman Victory

News of Caesar’s weakened position and an appeal to expel the invaders from their entrenchments spread throughout the countryside. Another wave of enemy forces advanced on foot and horseback toward the Roman encampment. Caesar charged his two legions against these tribal forces which were ultimately not able to withstand the Roman attack. In retaliation for the British treachery, several of the native farms were burned to ashes.

Ancient Celtic Village
Roundhouses

Finally, the tribal chieftains agreed to surrender under the terms that the number of hostages previously imposed would double. With the equinox close on hand, Caesar feared his repaired ships might not withstand the ocean’s storms and thus he sailed back to the Continent with only a few of the promised hostages. When he ordered the remaining hostages be sent to Gaul, the British rulers refused to send them.

During the following winter months, Caesar ordered his generals to build a fleet of newly designed ships that could better handle the seas in the British Channel for his second invasion.

(To be Continued)

References:

Julius Caesar, translated by F. P. Long, 2005. The Conquest of Gaul; United States: Barnes & Noble, Inc.

John Manley, 2002. AD 43—The Roman Invasion of Britain. Charlston, SC: Tempus Publishing Inc.

Graham Webster, The Roman Invasion of Britain; Reprinted 1999 by Routledge, New York.

Season’s Greetings; Apollo’s Raven Updates

SEASON’S GREETINGS The holiday season and New Year is a time to reflect on the blessings of family and friends who have enhanced our lives. I would like to thank everyone who has shared my adventures in exploring the mystique of the Ancient Celts and the Roman Empire on APOLLO’S RAVEN. This year, I have […]

The post Season’s Greetings; Apollo’s Raven Updates appeared first on LinneaTanner.com - Apollo's Raven.

Patheon of Celtic Gods and Goddesses

The ultimate adventure, when all the barriers and ogres have been overcome, is commonly represented as a mystical marriage of the triumphant hero-soul with the Queen Goddess of the World—Joseph Campbell.

Introduction

Previous posts on APOLLO'S RAVEN have provided an overview of Ancient Celtic religion and the pantheon of gods and goddesses. Although there are approximately 400 names of Celtic gods and goddesses which have been found throughout the vast area once inhabited by the Celts in Europe, from Ireland to Turkey, 305 of these names were inscribed only once. These were probably names of local deities. Only twenty names occurred with greater frequency and many of the Celtic gods and goddesses can be associated with Roman's. The Celtic polyvalent deity did not have exclusive functions, but they were adept in all things. They also appeared in many polymorphic guises that included zoomorphic forms which combined human and animal attributes.

Below in an overview of Celtic gods and goddesses who were more widely accepted by the ancient Celts across all regions.

Celtic Gods and Goddesses

Belenus

Equated with Apollo, Belenus was the most widely venerated of the Celtic gods. The previous two posts in APOLLO’S RAVEN detail the mythology and festivals associated with Belenus.

Belenus Equated with Apollo, God of the Sun and Healing

Cernunnos

Another popular god is the antler-god referred to as Cernunnos. He is the patron of the chase and the lord of the forest. Holed antlers discovered in Herfordshire UK appear to have been used as a human headdress, a practice widely presented in ancient cultures. Cernunnos was one of many zoomorphic (animal-like) gods. He is depicted on one of the plates of the Gundestrup Cauldron.

Antler-God, Cernunnos; Panel on Gundestrup Cauldron

Epona

A zoomorphic goddess who is represented by a mare is Epona. Monuments to Epona are found all over from Wales through France and into the Rhinelands. Her popularity with the Celts demonstrates their high regard for the horse. Epona was also popular with the Roman cavalrymen. Associated with fertility, Epona is the epitome of the mother goddess. In studies of Welsh mythology, she may have been equated with Rhiannon—the divine queen. In Irish studies, Epona might be associated with Maeve, the queen of the Connacht and Macha of Ulstur.

Epona Flanked by Horses

Lug

Among the names of the Celtic gods that appear more frequently on inscriptions is Lug—the Irish Lugh,  the Welsh Llew, and the Gaulish Lugus. It is generally accepted that when Caesar spoke of the Gaulish ‘Mercury’, he was referring to Lugus—the inventor of the arts and crafts. Yet, there are elements of Lug’s character  that are also similar with Jupiter, Mars, and Hercules. He is associated with the spear as a Magical Weapon brought from the Otherworld.

Lug's Bloodthirsty Magical Spear

At Lugdunum (modern day Lyons, France), the Gaulish Celts celebrated the ancient feast of Lugus. Following the Roman conquest, during the reign of Caesar Augustus, the feast was dedicated to the emperor. The same feast occurs in insular Celtic tradition on August 1st. In Ireland, the ritual is known as Lughnasadh, an agrarian feast in honor of harvesting crops.

The Irish Lugh was considered the greatest of all Celtic gods. The Dagda yielded command to him in the second battle of Magh Tuireadh. He is commonly known as Lugh of the Long arm or Hand. Of note, the Hindu perception of the sun rising, with its beams of light and its setting, was also likened to a great hand: “The god with the great hand stretches up his arms so that all obey.”  The Hindu solar deity, Savitar, also stretches out his hands to command day and night, suggesting a common Indo-European link.

Dagda on Panel of Gundestrup Cauldron

Teutates, Taranis, and Esus

The 1^st Century Roman poet, Lucan , writes the Celts had predominantly three gods: Teutates, Taranis, and Esus. Teutates was associated with the Roman god of trade, Mercury. The Celtic god of thunder, Taranis, is often equated with Jupiter; the Welsh word Taran means  ‘thunderer’. Esus was equivalent to the Roman god of war, Mars. His popularity among the Celts is evidenced by the number of Celtic names of gods joined to Mars on inscriptions.

God of Thunder, Taranis with Wheel and Thunderbolt, Equivalent to Jupiter

The method of killing human victims in sacrifices depended on which god the offering was made to. Victims sacrificed to Teutates were drowned, to Taranis were burned, and to Esus were hanged. On the Gundestrup Cauldron, there is a figure held upside-down over what appears to be a pail of water, perhaps a sacrifice to Teutates. It should be noted that the names of these three gods were not widely found on inscriptions.

Victim Sacrificed by Drowning as Offering to Teutates; One Panel of Gundestrup Cauldron

Triplicate Goddesses

The concept of triplicate forms has roots in Indo-European mythology and philosophy. In Hindu belief, the Trimurti consisted of Brahma, the Creator; Vishnu, the Maintainer or Preserver; and Shiva the Destroyer or Transformer. Pythagoras saw three as the perfect number of the philosophers: the beginning, middle and end. The ancient Greeks believed the world was ruled by three gods: Zeus (heavens), Poseidon (sea), and Pluto/Hades (underworld).  The Fates, the Furies and the Graces are example of triplicate goddesses who were found in Greek mythology.

Three Graces Greek Mythology

As in the Greek religion, the Celts viewed humans as body, soul and spirit; the world they inhabited as earth, sea, and air; and the division in nature as animal, vegetable, and mineral. Celtic goddesses were also often portrayed in triplicate forms as described below.

Mother Goddesses

Mother symbols were worshipped in triplicate from. In Gaul the title matres or matronae was used. Mother Earth was the symbol of fertility and figures of children, baskets of fruitm and horns of plenty were found all over the Celtic world. From Vertault in Burgundy was a triple mother goddess sculpture with a baby held by one hand while the other holds a towel. A triad of mother goddesses are carved on a plaque that is displayed at the Romans Baths (Bath, UK).

Triplicate Mother Goddesses Displayed at Bath UK Roman Baths

War Goddesses

The most famous war goddess, Morrigan is  interchangeable with Macha, Babd and Neiman. She embodies all that is perverse and horrible among the supernatural powers. In Irish literature, the story of Cu Chulainn features three goddesses—Morrigan, Macha and Babd— battle furies with an uncanny resemblance to Mcbeth’s three witches.

Babd is one of the triple-aspect goddess of war who would fly over warriors in battle and give out terrible screams, both to frighten and to incite them to even braver and mightier deeds. In this role, she is known as Badhbh Catha, the ‘battle raven’. It is claimed that she appeared above the head of the warriors during the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 A.D., when Brian Boramha defeated the Vikings. Babd is associated with sexual desire and fulfillment, as are all of the deities of war and battles. She is often guised as a beautiful young woman, but  can also take the form of a raven or a hideous hag. When Babd appears in the Ulster cycle and incites Cu Chulainn to his last battle, she takes the form of the raven and waits to pick his corpse clean.

Celtic Goddesses of War Can Take Shape of Raven

Macha is the second aspect of the triple goddess of war who is featured in the Ulster cycle. One legend states that she was forced to race the King of Ulster’s horses while she was pregnant. She wins the race, but gives birth to twins as soon as she crosses the finish line. In her shame and anger, she curses the men of Ulster that, whenever they needed their strength most, such as on the eve of battle, they would be as weak as a woman in childbirth for nine days and nights. Like her sisters, she is associated with war and sexual gratification. She is closely connected with battle trophies of the goriest nature, especially severed heads, which were known as Macha’ s Acorn Crop.

Macha Curses Men of Ulstur

Morrigan is the third of the triple goddesses of war who appears in both the Mythological Cycle and the Ulster cycles, particularly in  the Cattle Raid of Cooley. She is seen as a weeping woman washing blood-stained shrouds at a ford in a river. This is an omen, particularly to a warrior on the way to battle. In one legend the Dagna encounters her washing blood-stained clothing in a stream. At the end of the legend, she gives a dire prophecy to the fate of humankind and the world. She is associated with war, grief, mutilation, shape shifting, and sexual gratification for its own sake.

Conclusions Ancient Celtic Religion

Ancient Celtic religion conjures both utopian and horrific images. The Celts demonstrated their spiritual kinship to nature and love for the Mother Goddess through their artwork and reverence for sacred groves. Their beliefs and philosophies are similar to the Greeks and Hindu Brahmins. Ancient Druids studied the nature of moral philosophy and believed the human soul is indestructible. Their belief in the immortal soul can be associated with the Greek Philosopher, Pythagoras, who was famous for his philosophy that the soul was immortal and went through a series of reincarnations that included animals and plants.

Gundestrup Cauldron

The Celtic belief in the soul ties in with their darker side of keeping enemies' heads as trophies after battle. This practice was based on their belief that the head was the temple of the soul. Possessing an enemy’s skull was the same as capturing his soul and retaining its power. The soul is the continuation of the existence of a person and includes all of the functions of personality.

La Roquepertuse Gateway of Skulls

Finally, the Celts viewed the gods as their ancestors and creators who were more like supernatural heroes and heroines. Celtic gods and goddesses were multi-functional and could take different forms that included those of animals. Humans were sacrificed to the Celtic gods and goddesses to assure their favor in wars and harvests.

Upcoming Next Series

The next series of posts will discuss the rise of rival Celtic tribal dynasties in Britain between the time of Julius Caesar’s invasions in 55 – 54 B.C. and the final Roman conquest in 43 A.D. under Emperor Claudius.

White Cliffs Near Dover Britain

References

1. John Davies, The Celts: Prehistory to Present Day; 2005; Sterling Publishing Co., New York.
2. Julius Caesar, translated by F. P. Long, 2005. The Conquest of Gaul; United States: Barnes & Noble, Inc.
3. Peter Berresford Ellis, The Druids, 1995; William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI.
4. Steve Blamires,Magic of the Celtic Otherworld: Irish History, Lore & Rituals, 2009, Llewellyn Publications, Woodbury, MN.
5. Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, 2008; Bollingen Series IVII, Third Edition; New World Library, Novato, CA

Check out Website: http://www.linneatanner.com/blog/